Neo-Kantianism. Friedrich Albert Lange and Otto Liebmann. Marburg, Baden school. The problem of substantiating the objectivity of knowledge
Neo-Kantianism is one of the dominant currents in philosophical thought in Germany in the second half of the 19th – first quarter of the 20th century. Its emergence can be roughly attributed to the mid-fifties of the 19th century, when Otto Liebmann proclaimed the slogan “Back to Kant!”
Hegelian philosophy. Herbert Bradley, Josiah Royce, Alexandre Kojève. The criterion of truth is the reality of knowledge
Hegelian philosophy underwent a very complex evolution during the 19th and 20th centuries. Few of Hegel’s followers fully agreed with the philosopher, and most Hegelians preferred an independent way of thinking, which is why we cannot equate Hegel’s philosophy with Hegelianism. An exception is the so-called Hegelian school, which arose during the philosopher’s lifetime and included mainly his students and friends who tried to create an orthodox image of Hegelian philosophy. It was thanks to their efforts that shortly after Hegel’s death a collection of his works was published, the so-called “edition of friends” (1832-1840), which included both works published during his lifetime and recordings of his lecture courses.
French Enlightenment. Fighting prejudice and ignorance
The 18th century is rightly called the Age of Enlightenment. The ideas of the enlighteners were spread in many European countries, as well as on the North American continent. But the philosophy of the enlighteners first took shape and found its classical expression in France. As a modern researcher rightly noted, “France was the ‘showcase’ of the European Enlightenment” (9: 9). The philosophy of the French Enlightenment was generally characterized by naturalism (the desire to explain nature based on itself). In the theory of knowledge, the enlighteners adhered to sensualism (the attitude that the source of all knowledge is sensations). In addition, the representatives of the philosophy of the Enlightenment were convinced that all human knowledge could be systematized and presented in the form of a single short encyclopedic collection (the famous “Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts” was published in 1751-1780). A negative attitude towards existing religions was typical of the Enlightenment ideology (although not all enlighteners were atheists).
Philosophy of Stoa. Zeno, Chrysippus, Panetius, Posidonius, Seneca, Musonia Rufus, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius
The Stoic school was founded at the end of the 4th century BC by Zeno, a native of the Cypriot city of Kition, which had a Phoenician settlement. Some scholars believe that Zeno was of Phoenician origin. At the end of the 4th century, he came to Athens and turned to philosophy. Inspired by the image of Socrates in Xenophon’s “Memoirs”, he became a student of the Cynic Crates, and thanks to this, the influence of the Cynics colors the ethical teaching of the Stoics quite strongly. He also attended lectures by Polemon and Diodorus Cronus. After this, he founded his own school, which was located in the famous “Motley Portico” (tod ποικίλη ), painted with frescoes by Polygnotus. This is where the school got its name. Zeno was highly respected in Athens for his preaching of virtue, after his death he was awarded high awards by the Athenian citizens. Zeno’s most important students were Ariston of Chios and Cheryl. Ariston was a strong example of the Cynic streak. He completely rejected logic and physics, calling for an exclusive focus on virtue and vice. Another famous student of Zeno was Cleanthes of Assos, a former boxer who became a loyal follower of Zeno. Cleanthes’s student Chrysippus of Soli (?281 – 208 BC) played a special role in the development of the Stoic school; his all-encompassing talent allowed him to become, so to speak, the second founder of the Stoics. He was a prolific writer, producing 500 lines a day. He developed a complex system of Stoic logic and made many changes to ethics and physics. Chrysippus’s students included Diogenes of Seleucia and Antipater of Tarsus.