Pragmatism. William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, John Dewey. Instrumentalism. The Fundamental Role of Doubt
Pragmatism is the most important school of American philosophy. Its main representatives in the early stages were C. S. Peirce, W. James and J. Dewey. Charles Sanders Peirce is rightfully considered one of the most original and versatile philosophers that America has ever produced. As an innovative intellectual, he anticipated the development of a wide variety of scientific disciplines. His research left a noticeable mark on both the exact and natural sciences and the humanities. He was a mathematician, astronomer, chemist, surveyor, cartographer and engineer, but also a psychologist, philologist and historian of science. He was one of the first in the United States to engage in experimental psychology and the first to use the wavelength of light as a unit of measurement. His posthumous fame was made up of his works in the field of logic and semiotics, but he was also the author of an original metaphysical system. C. S. Peirce entered the history of philosophy as the founder of the philosophy of pragmatism, another direction of his intellectual creativity.
Patristics. The body of teachings of the Christian Church Fathers
In the Western theological (as well as historical and philosophical) tradition , patristics (Greek: rcaxfjp , Latin: pater, father) is usually called a conditional set of teachings of the fathers of the Christian church of the 2nd-8th centuries. Initially, a “father” was called a spiritual mentor who possessed a teaching authority recognized in the church. Subsequently, by the 5th century, four fundamental characteristics of the patristic model were finally established: 1) holiness of life; 2) antiquity; 3) orthodoxy of teaching; 4) official recognition by the church. The last “father” from the point of view of the Western, Catholic, theological tradition was John of Damascus (d. 753), but all other Christian authors who lived after him were called “church writers”. On the contrary, according to the Greek, Orthodox, tradition, sacred tradition, in essence, is not subject to any chronological specification: the Holy Spirit acts through people at all times; The Orthodox Church considers the main criterion in determining the degree of orthodoxy of the views of a particular father not to be antiquity, or even holiness in itself, but the spiritual closeness of the teaching in relation to the canons of the apostolic faith commanded by the church.